Contributions marked with an asterisk (*) indicate principal publications, mostly on sites and monuments introduced to the scholarly world for the first time. The colour illustrations in this site are from our extensive slide collection, and may not be the same views as printed in the publications. Illustrations in our contributions to edited books are mainly in monochrome.

 

 

“Az iszlám művészet Indiában a korai iszlámtól a Nagy-Mughalok bukásáig (Indo-Islamic architecture from the sultanate to the early Mughal period)”, M. Shokoohy, chapter XII, in Géza Fehérvári, Az iszlám művészet története, (Képzömüvészeti Kiadó) Budapest, 1987, pp. 193-225, pls. 161-184, colour pls. 182-196. 

 

ISBN: 963 336 348 9

 

The work is a chapter in the late Professor Fehérvári’s book on Islamic art and architecture in Hungarian. The chapter, originally in English, was translated into Hungarian, but the original English version has not yet been published. Sultanate and Mughal architecture are discussed in general terms, as well as regional architectural styles, such as those of Nagaur and Bayana, which had not been given the attention they deserve in general books on Islamic architecture.

New Delhi, the mosque in the shrine of Kwaja Nizam al-din Auliya’, built of red and buff sandstone in the early fourteenth century. The layout of three interconnected domed chambers with the central dome built on squinches and standing higher than the side domes ‒ set on pendentives ‒  is a prototype for numerous mosques from that period to modern times.

 

Tughluqabad, the tomb of Ghiyath al-din Tughluq. The battered

walls are a hallmark of the architecture of the Tughluq dynasty

and seem to have been adapted from the mud architecture of

Iran and Afghanistan.

 

The study of the mausoleum was part of the project of survey of Tughluqabad, and the article considers the history of the building and presents fresh and detailed survey drawings of the tomb chamber and its fortified enclosure, as well as an octagonal domed chamber in a corner of the enclosure housing the tomb of Zafar Khan, one of Ghiyath al-din’s army commanders, who died during the reign of the sultan. A version of this article has also been given as an appendix in the book: Tughluqabad, a paradigm for Indo-Islamic urban planning and its architectural components.

 

The Festschrift is available from major booksellers or directly from www.melisende.com

 

 

 

“Mi‘mari wa athar-i tarikhi-yi bengal (Architecture and historical monuments of Bengal)” (in Persian), M. Shokoohy, The Great Islamic Encyclopaedia, vol. XII, Tehran, 2004, pp. 605-608.

ISBN 978-9-647025-24-9

 

The paper was prepared at the request of the editors of The Great Islamic Encyclopaedia, for Persian readership, as the monuments of Bengal are almost entirely unknown in Iran, although there have been numerous publications on this topic in English. The paper discusses briefly the Muslim history of Bengal, and introduces its major monuments with a bibliography. It was originally prepared in English and translated into Persian by the publishers’ translators.

 

A pdf of the English version of the article is available.

 

Hadrat Pandua, the colossal congregational mosque built, unusually, with the prayer hall set at the longer side of the rectangular courtyard, recalling the mosque at Damascus, the only other celebrated mosque with such a layout. The Bengali structure, built of stone at the lower level and brick above represents one of the finest specimens of the architecture of the region.

 

 

 

“The Sidi Sayyid – or Sidi Sa‘id – Mosque in Ahmadabad”, M. Shokoohy, in: African Elites in India, eds. Kenneth X. Robbins and John McLeod, (Mapin Publishing) Ahmedabad, 2006, pp. 144-161, figs. 138-152.

ISBN: 978-1-890206-97-0

 

In the heart of old Ahmadabad, Gujarat, now by the side of a busy crowded road submerged in noise and smoke pollution, stands a small mosque; its austere architecture and fine stone carving offering a calm and tranquil retreat, and leaving those who enter it a lasting impression of its subtle charm. The mosque, commonly known as the Sidi Sayyid Masjid, is one of the smallest and latest monuments of the sultanate of Gujarat and yet is renowned world wide as a gem of Gujarati architecture.  The building is on all tour itineraries, while its stone tracery has become almost an emblem for the city. Although the mosque is not in regular everyday use it is still regarded as a place of worship by the large Muslim community of Ahmadabad. 

The mosque was first studied in some detail by James Burgess who called it Sidi Sayyad’s Masjid and carried out a survey of the building, published early in the twentieth century with architectural drawings as well as details of its carved panels, some of which are reproduced in the present work. However, he had little information on the history of the mosque. The local name suggested that the building was associated with the habashis (or habshis), the “Abyssinian” slave-soldiers – and administrators – of the court of Gujarat.  

 

The paper gives a fresh description of the mosque and investigates its founder and the date of its construction through historical sources including the Gujarat historian Muhammad b. ‘Umar al-Makki, concluding that the mosque was constructed by Shaikh Sa‘id al-Habashi who was in the service of Sultan Mahmūd (AH 943–961/AD 1537–1554). In the brief but turbulent period after the death of the Sultan, when for a short time the habashis gained control, Sidi Sa‘id joined the service of Amir Jhujhar and is reported to have shown great courage and bravery. Shaikh Sa‘id later chose the quiet life of a learned and pious man of the faith. He had settled in Ahmadabad with apparently considerable wealth and it was at this period of his life that he built his famous mosque in AH 978 (1570-1 AD) and was buried near it when he died six years later.  According to Muhammad b. ‘Umar al-Makki: 

“In this year on Monday the 3rd of the month of Shawwal (24th December 1576) the brave and successful Shaikh Sa‘id of Abyssinia (al-habashi), known as the Royal Slave, died in Ahmadabad.  In nature he was auspicious, of laudable qualities, possessed of all the principles worthy of elevation, with all ramifications of piety and was of encyclopaedic knowledge and adorned with virtues.  His grave is in a mosque near the citadel on the main road. The mosque was originally an old building of bricks near his house. He rebuilt it with stone, elevated its stature and roofed it with domes and arches all with finely smoothed stone.... All around the walls of the mosque is decorated pierced stonework of excellent workmanship”.

A pdf of the chapter is available.

The book is available from major booksellers or directly from www.mapinpub.in

Ahmadabad, Gujarat, the diminutive mosque of Sidi Saʽid, its modest ornamentation relieved by the pieced stone screen-work (jali) of its windows, particularly those with the “tree of life” pattern set above and at either side of the prayer niche (mihrab). Soft light penetrating the jalis creates a tranquil ambience in the prayer hall.

 

*  “The Indian ‘idgah and its Persian prototype the namazgāh or musalla”, M. and N. H. Shokoohy, in: Sifting Sands, Reading Signs: Studies in Honour of Professor Géza Fehérvári,  ed. Patricia L. Baker and Barbara Brend, (Furnace Publishing, distribution: School of Oriental and African Studies) London, 2006, pp. 105-119, figs. 1-15.

 

ISBN: 978-0-955026-60-7 

 

The ʽidgah of Bada’on, attributed to the time of

Iltutmish (AH 607-633/AD 1211-36) who also built

the original mosque, later heavily reconstructed

during the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar. The

‘idgah has also been restored many times, but its

plan with a large tower at each end and an iwan

(open fronted chamber) housing the prayer niche

has preserved its early layout. Until recently some

of the original decoration – characteristic of the

thirteenth century – could still be seen (shown on

the right), but the building has been plastered over

covering all the old ornamentation.

On the outskirts of many towns and villages in India there often stands an ‘idgah (literally a place for festivals), where the Muslims gather for prayer during a few particular festive days of the calendar, but which is left deserted for the rest of the year. Although a familiar sight, the origin and development of the form had not previously attracted the attention of the scholarly world.

 

The structures consist of a sizeable wall, often with a reinforcing pier or tower at each end and a mihrab (prayer niche) indicating the qibla (the direction of Mecca) in the centre, sometimes flanked by subsidiary mihrabs. The back of the wall is plain, but the main mihrab usually projects outside the wall, not only to distinguish the feature as a prayer wall, but also to reinforce the structure. The prayer walls are traditionally built facing an open field, away from buildings, tombs and graveyards, and are often – but not always – without a fence or low wall to distinguish the limits of the prayer ground; the size of the gathering is not usually constrained by a specific marked space.

Each town or village traditionally has only one ‘idgah, and in the past if a town expanded and building a new prayer wall, away from the built up area, was deemed necessary, the older ‘idgah would be demolished. The role of the ‘idgah in the life of the people went well beyond a simple congregation place for prayer, as on those festive days the gathering had an atmosphere of celebration, joy, and fun. Such a scene in pre-Partition India, with the whole town turning out, and hawkers selling sweets and knickknacks on the way, is depicted by the Urdu writer Prem Chand in his short story “‘Idgah”.   However, in modern times in many of the larger cities of India the tradition of gathering for Muslim festivals is declining and with the sudden expansion of towns and villages some ‘idgahs have been demolished altogether to give way for new buildings and many others which are preserved are confined within built-up areas.

 

The paper investigates the origin of the form in tenth and eleventh century Iran and the introduction of these features to India at the end of the twelfth century. It also examines how the form developed very differently in later years in Iran and in India; in Iran the plain prayer walls developed gradually in substantial structures with chambers which could become as complex in layout as mosques, whereas in India the ʽidgah became plainer in form and ended up as a simple wall with a pier at each end for stability. 

 

The articles of the festschrift were written by Géza Fehérvári’s colleagues in celebration of his 80th birthday.

 

Sifting Sands is out of print but a pdf of the chapter is available.

 

* “Sources for Malabar Muslim Inscriptions”, M. Shokoohy, in: Malabar in the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism in a Maritime Historical region, ed. Mahmood Kooria and Michael Naylor Pearson, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2018, 1-63, figs 1.1-1.27.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-948032-6

Calicut, the foundation stone of an early mosque preserved in the Muchchandipalli recording the construction of a mosque and the excavation of a well. The panel is likely to date from the thirteenth or early fourteenth century and while the date is eroded a reading of 686/1287–8 may be suggested.

 

As with all regions of South Asia, the inscriptions of Malabar stand as incontrovertible historical records, as, unlike manuscripts, they are not subject to error or misinterpretation of ambiguous words by later copyists. The epigraphs speak to us directly from the time of composition, setting out the composers’ aims and perception of their social position as well as revealing the community’s attitude to itself and outsiders. The Malabar maritime Muslims were a small, but affluent, influential, minority and their inscriptions often include both historical and religious texts, recording dates, sometimes events, and usually the name of the patron of the project. With epitaphs the historical text usually provides the date of an event or the death of the deceased, with names sometimes comprising a lineage, indicating position in society as well as the town or region of origin. Such information is revealing for understanding the composition of the communities.

The major inscriptions in Quilon (Kollam), Calicut (Kozhikode) and Cochin (Kochi) are investigated in detail, analysing their significance. Some inscriptions provide material evidence for the presence of Muslim communities at least from the 13th century while others attest to the revival of Muslim influence in the region, after an interruption caused by the advent of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and their challenge to Muslim maritime trade.






A comprehensive chronological list is then given of all known Muslim inscriptions in Malabar, mentioning their location and giving reference to sources. Most of these inscriptions have simply been noted in the epigraphic reports, but have so far remained unstudied. Nevertheless, the list provides valuable social and historical information. Most of the tombstones seem to have been worn out, but the names of the deceased give revealing information on the composition of the community. Together the inscriptions of the edifices and the epitaphs speaks of the close network of Muslim communities in the trading posts of India and beyond.


 

    Calicut Jami`. The panel over the entrance
    to the prayer hall recording the renovation
    of the mosque in 885/1480–1.

It is hoped that the list will provide a stepping-stone for scholars to continue with detailed studies. The list is followed by a critical overview of such records, noting that in spite of the previous lack of proper investigation, considerable historical and social knowledge can be gleaned from their perusal.

 

* “The Malabar Mosque: a visual manifestation of an egalitarian faith”, M. Shokoohy and N. H. Shokoohy, in: Malabar in the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism in a Maritime Historical Region, ed. Mahmood Kooria and Michael Naylor Pearson, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2018, 307-337, figs 11.1-11.23.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-948032-6

    Calicut, interior of the central part of the Jami` looking towards the mihrab
    and giving an impression of how the original mosque would have looked. The
    modern blue and white paint has altered the original appearance, as the
    wooden columns and ceiling would have been oiled and probably stained
    with subtle colours.

The Indian Ocean trade did not begin with the Muslims. From the time of the ancient Greeks, Persians and Romans, people of many faiths – Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians – had settled on the India littoral, but no other maritime community had such a profound effect on the culture of their hosts as the Muslims, with the mosque as the architectural manifestation of their principal belief. While similarities can be drawn between the structure of the Malabar temples and mosques there was no parallel between them in concept or architectural planning. In a temple the gates and halls barred non-Hindus, outcastes and low castes from entry. Even for those allowed to enter, the dark inner sanctum of the temple was reserved for the Brahmins who performed the ritual on behalf of others. A mosque, on the other hand was a bright airy hall open to all. The prayer hall had no image of the sole invisible Almighty as a focal point, instead the worshipers prayed in the direction of Mecca, marked by a simple niche in the western wall. To all these differences one should add the concept of the khutba, the sermon usually delivered after the Friday prayer by the religious leader, guiding the faithful to the right path and furthermore giving the community – made up of merchants from different parts of the world – a sense of unity under the aegis of their single faith.


The planning of the Malabar mosques, consisting of an ante-chamber in front of the prayer hall differs from that of the sub-continent inland where there is no such ante-chamber. In Malabar a colonnaded porch often fronts this ante-chamber, a feature again absent in other Indian mosques. The Malabar mosque plan seems to be specifically related to the architecture of the trading communities and its roots can be traced back to the earliest Muslim settlements in Gujarat.

In structure, however the buildings employ the existing local traditional methods. This characteristic of the architecture of the maritime Muslims derives from the practice of hiring local craftsmen and using readily available material for building work. In the wider arena, the planning of the Malabar mosques resembles closely that of other coastal regions of India as well as lands further away – Malaysia, Indonesia and elsewhere – and in all these places local construction methods are employed, leading to striking similarities between the mosque architecture of Malabar and of South-East Asia.